Update on Sandia Cave

Abstract

Sandia Cave generated much interest when in the 1940s
extinct Pleistocene megafauna were reported in association
with what appeared to be a pre-Folsom Paleoindian component.
By the 1950s a series of controversies regarding the stratigraphy
and dating began to push the site into obscurity. The human
occupation at the site has never been directly dated beyond
2250 ± 50 BP, and nonartifactual associated bone will not
provide reliable age estimates because of extensive bioturbation,
poor provenience, and the fact that the majority of fossils were
accumulated by carnivores and rodents, rather than humans. However,
a small number of mineralized fragments display human modification,
suggesting occasional human activity of some antiquity at the site.
One bone tool, one burned bone, and four bones bearing butchery marks
were subjected to direct Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 14C dating.
Unfortunately, mineralized bones did not preserve sufficient collagen
to be dated. Two unmineralized specimens (the burned bone and the bone tool)
push the direct chronometric ages for the human occupation at Sandia Cave
back to 3447 ± 96 BP. An older Folsom occupation is suggested by associated
dates on breccia, but all lines of evidence taken together provide no
support for a pre-Folsom human occupation.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

"...Although the site unquestionably contained Pleistocene
fauna, most of the large mammal fossils
were likely deposited while the site was used as a
carnivore den (Thompson et a1. 2008)..."


"...human occupation was evidenced by low levels of
human modification on the bone..."



"...In 1935, a mandible was excavated from
Sandia Cave under the direction of Wesley Bliss
(1940a, 1940b), who also worked with Hibben on
the original excavations. The mandible was recovered
by Chester Stock of the Los Angeles
County Museum in California from a hearth in the
back of the "vestibule" about 10 m from the
mouth of the cave. The hearth contained the first
example of a Sandia point along with what were
interpreted to be bola balls (Bliss 1940a)..."


"...The distal end of the mandible is dark grey to
black, rather than brown like the remainder of the
specimen (see Figure 3). This suggested it was either
burned or stained by wad, a mineralogical
family of brown to black hydrated manganese
oxides. This type of manganese mineralization
had been observed in the limonite ocher (Stratum
C) of Sandia Cave (Haynes and Agogino 1986).
In 2002, the specimen was subjected to qualitative
analysis by x-ray fluorescence at a University of
Arizona medical facility and found to have very
little Mn in either the brown or the black portions,
suggesting that the black was attributable to charring
and not Mn mineralization (see Table I)..."




"...The AMS technique for 14C dating allowed
the small sample of 2.9 mg of black carbon
to yield an age of 3,447 ± 96 BP (AA-49057).
Burned bone has been known to yield 14C ages
that are too young (Haynes 1967), so the age could
be considered a minimum value. However, there is
the possibility that the mandible was already fossilized
at the time it was burned in the hearth..."


"...three subgroups: (1) least altered and stained, (2) bones of inter-
mediate stage, and (3) most corroded and yellow ocher stained..."



"...The mandible of this report would
be classified as falling into group 3, most corroded
and stained. This raises the question of its
age at the time of charring..."


"...Because percussion flakes occur in the original Sandia Cave assemblage,
this confirms that at least occasionally humans made use of the site for
the processing and consumption of faunal remains..."


"...Figure 4. Photographs of the dated specimens showing human modification with close-ups in boxed area: (a) cut and percussion marks, specimen 3.69; (b) percussion mark, specimen 16.28; (c) cut marks, specimen 42.24; (d) percussion mark on flake, specimen 46.4; and (e) bone tool, specimen 45.1..."


"...Table 2. Results of AMS Dating for Human-Modified Specimens at Sandia Cave..."


"...Laboratory#/ Specimen#/ Specimen Type/ Surface Modification/ Mineralization..."



"...AA74240/ 16.28'(a)/ Long bone midshaft fragment/ Percussion mark/ Heavy..."
"...AA74241/ 3.69' (a)/ Long bone midshaft fragment/ Cut and percussion/ Heavy..."
"...AA74242/ 42.24 (a)/ Long bone midshaft fragment/ Cut marks/ Heavy..."


"...(a)Insufficient collagen could be extracted to recommend attempting to date the specimen..."



"...Because only unfossilized specimens could produce 14C
ages, there are no concerns about ancient carbon
from the limestone environment becoming incorporated
into the bone and making the ages appear
too old. Despite the inability of the fossilized
bones to produce an age in this particular case, it
should be stressed that dating of bone that specifically
bears butchery marks is a method that
should adopted elsewhere, as it minimizes the
potential effects of bioturbation and truly targets
the dating of human-faunal interactions when the
bone was in a nutritive state..."


"...Clear signs of human modification occur on lightly
to heavily mineralized bone fragments at Sandia
Cave, suggesting human occupation of some antiquity.
Because of extensive bioturbation at the
site, we employed AMS 14C dating on these culturally
modifIed specimens to determine a more
precise estimate of the age of human occupation of
the site. We suggest that this approach, which requires
an intimate pairing of taphonomy and radiochronology,
is one that should be adopted for sites where extensive bioturbation has introduced
question to the association between cultural and
faunal remains. Although in this case adequate
collagen could not be extracted from specimens
exhibiting butchery damage, a burned specimen
from a hearth feature and a bone tool could be
dated. Our results indicate that although Sandia
Cave is a genuine Pleistocene paleontological locality
and likely also contains genuine Folsom
material, any human occupation at the site cannot
be directly radiometrically dated beyond 3,447 ±
96 years BP..."



RADIOCARBON DATING THE HUMAN OCCUPATION
AT SANDIA CAVE, NEW MEXICO
Jessica C. Thompson and C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
American Antiquity 77(2), 2012. pp. 303-314

http://saa.metapress.com/content/y24hhnh77wv64467/

 Sandia Point in situ at Sandia Cave

 Sandia Point from Sandia Cave

http://www.flickr.com/photos/94515086@N00/2329397738/

A Sandia Point, found by Hibben in Sandia Cave. Note the single shouldered design, a shape unique in the Americas and reminiscent of European paleo-cultures.

http://forgottenabq.blogspot.com/2008/0 ... art-1.html

 TYPE I SANDIA POINT CAST

TYPE II SANDIA POINT CAST


http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2010junesandiapointspage1.htm


Charlie Hatchett

www.pre-clovis.com
www.forum.pre-clovis.com
www.blog.pre-clovis.com

Notes on mtDNA Hg X

"...X2 encompasses all X mtDNAs from Europe, western and Central Asia, Siberia, and the great majority of the Near East..."


"...X2 has apparently undergone a more recent population expansion in Eurasia, most likely around or after the last glacial maximum. It is notable that X2 includes the two complete Native American X sequences that constitute the distinctive X2a clade, a clade that lacks close relatives in the entire Old World, including Siberia. The position of X2a in the phylogenetic tree suggests an early split from the other X2 clades, likely at the very beginning of their expansion and spread from the Near East..."

"...For Native Americans, the relatively old presence of haplogroup X is confirmed
by the analysis of ancient human remains (Stone and Stoneking 1999; Malhi and Smith 2002).
Moreover, Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs form a clade distinct from that of West
Eurasians and with coalescence time estimates varying widely depending on both the
method of estimation and the number of assumed founders. Thus, the coalescence times
ranged from 12,000–17,000 YBP to 23,000–36,000 YBP, times that are consistent
with both a pre- and a postglacial population diffusion (Brown et al. 1998)..."

"...X2 is well represented in the tree, and it is further subdivided into at least six major clades
(X2a–X2f), which include clades X1 and X2 as defined by Herrnstadt et al. (2002). All 20 X2 sequences, including the 2 Native American X2a sequences, share transitions at nucleotide positions (nps) 195 and 1719..."


"...The adenine at np 153 appears relatively conserved in the phylogenetic context
of 376 complete human mtDNA sequences taken worldwide,
exhibiting a change to guanine only in haplogroups
A and X (Ingman et al. 2000; Finnila¨ et al. 2001;
Maca-Meyer et al. 2001; Derbeneva et al. 2002; Mishmar
et al. 2003)..."

"...In contrast, this position shows a high
level of variation in the background of haplogroup X
as both the 153A and 153G alleles are present in its
different subclades. It is possible that the ArG transition
at 153 arose only once in the haplogroup X ancestor
and the recurrent reverse mutations in 11 branches in
figure 2 bear witness to the process of favored fixation
of the more stable A allele..."

"...Virtually all (97.2%) haplogroup X mtDNAs from the
Near East, the South Caucasus, and Europe were found
to belong to subhaplogroup X2, as did all (100%) of
those from Siberia and Central Asia and some (36.8%)
of those from North Africa (table 2). Thus, subhaplogroup
X2 is characterized by a very wide geographic
range but also by an infrequent occurrence. Indeed, it
generally comprises <5% of the mtDNAs in West Eurasian
and North African populations (table 1). *Three
exceptions include the Druze, the Georgians, and the
Orkney Islanders, among whom the frequency of X2
reaches 11%, 8%, and 7%, respectively*. The high frequencies
of X2 in the Druze and the Orkney Islanders
are combined with a low haplotype diversity (0.400 and
0.473, respectively), and the relatively high frequency in
these populations is most likely due to genetic drift and
founder events..."

"...Overall, it appears that the populations
of the Near East, the Caucasus, and Mediterranean Europe
harbor subhaplogroup X2 at higher frequencies
than those of northern and northeastern Europe (P !
.05) and that X2 is rare in Eastern European as well as
Central Asian, Siberian, and Indian populations and is
virtually absent in the Finno-Ugric and Turkic-speaking
people of the Volga-Ural region..."

"...Coalescence time estimates based on HVS-I and coding region variation—
17,900 +/- 2,900 YBP and 21,600+/- 4,000 YBP, respectively
(figs. 1 and 2)—are consistent with the range
expansion of X2 around or after the last glacial maximum
(LGM). It is intriguing that the estimated coalescence
time for X2 alone is very close to that obtained
from HVS-I data for the entire haplogroup X (20,200
3,100 YBP) (fig. 2). However, the latter is probably
an underestimate due to both the higher proportion
(190%) of X2 mtDNAs included in the calculations and
the fact that the HVS-I consensus sequence of X2 is
completely identical to that of the overall haplogroup
X..."



"...Two-thirds of the subhaplogroup X2 sequences fall
into the five clades X2b–X2f (fig. 2). Two sequences—
one from Lebanon and one from Georgia—lacked the
transition at np 1719, suggesting either the presence of
an early X2 branch or a reversion at that nucleotide
position..."

"...The sister groups X2b and X2c (X1 and X2,
respectively, in the work of Herrnstadt et al. 2002) encompass
one-third of the European sequences (excluding
the samples from the North Caucasus). It is of interest
that some North African sequences (from Morocco and
Algeria) belong to X2b as well. Subhaplogroup X2b
shows a diversity that is consistent with a postglacial
population expansion in both West Eurasia and North
Africa..."

"...Clades X2e and X2f encompass the majority
(87.1%) of the sequences from the South Caucasus area
and show coalescence times (12,000 4,000 YBP and
10,800 5,000 YBP, respectively) consistent with a
Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP) origin and a subsequent
spread in the region..."

"...We found significant differences
between the haplogroup distribution between the North
and the South Caucasian samples, a result that indicates
a major geographical barrier between the two regions.
The South Caucasian sample is enriched in mtDNAs
belonging to clades X2e and X2f (P ! .01), whereas the
North Caucasian sample shows a higher proportion of
sequences derived at nps 225 and 16248 (P < .01)..."

"...Clade X2e, defined by the synonymous substitution
at 15310, encompasses all haplogroup X sequences in
the Altaians (fig. 2). Among the nine Altaian X sequences,
eight harbor the founder HVS-I motif of X2e,
and seven of these eight also carry the HVS-II founder
motif. As a result, a very low haplotype diversity of
haplogroup X (0) in the Altaian region was obtained,
making it significantly different from the haplotype
diversities for haplogroups C and D (0.835 and 0.943,
respectively) in the same region. Moreover, the nine Altaian
mtDNAs do not harbor any nucleotide difference
between nps 16090 and 16365. Therefore, under the
assumption that these sequences are a random sample
of the Altaian haplogroup X, an estimated r value <0.33
(P <.05) was obtained. This value corresponds to a time
depth of <6,700 years (Forster et al. 1996), and it would
*suggest that Altaians have acquired haplogroup X2 only
relatively recently*..."


"...This scenario is supported by the *concomitant
presence in the Altaians of a wide range of
other West Eurasian haplogroups* (H, J, I, T, U1, U4,
and U5) that comprise ∼27% of their mtDNAs. Indeed,
any recent migration (for example, from the [southern]
Caucasus region) that might have carried X2e mtDNA
sequences to the Altai region would also explain the
*presence of the other West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups
in modern Altaians*..."

"...Further northeast of the Altai area, haplogroup X sequences
were detected in the Tungusic-speaking Evenks,
of the Podkamennaya Tunguska basin (Central Siberia).
In contrast to the Altaians, the Evenks did not harbor
any West Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups other than X.
However, *neither of the two Evenk X haplotypes showed
mutations characteristic of the Native American clade
X2a. Instead, one sequence was a member of X2b and
the other of X2* (fig. 2)*..."


"...one possible scenario is that several X haplotypes arrived in Siberia from western
Asia during the Palaeolithic, but only X2a crossed Beringia
and survived in modern Native Americans. Alternatively,
the presence of two phylogenetically different
haplogroup X mtDNA sequences in this particular subpopulation
of Evenks might be due to recent gene flow..."

"...We surveyed our Old World haplogroup
X mtDNAs for the five diagnostic X2a mutations
(table 2) and found a match only for the transition
at np 12397 in a single X2* sequence from Iran. In a
parsimony tree, this Iranian mtDNA would share a common
ancestor with the Native American clade..."

"...Yet, the nonsynonymous substitution at np 12397 converting
threonine to alanine cannot be regarded a conservative
marker, as it has also been observed in two
different phylogenetic contexts—in haplogroups J1 and
L3e—among 794 complete mtDNA sequences..."

"...These findings leave unanswered the question of the
geographic source of Native American X2a in the Old
World, although our analysis provides new clues about
the time of the arrival of haplogroup X in the Americas.
Indeed, if we assume that the two complete Native
American X sequences (from one Navajo and one
Ojibwa) began to diverge while their common ancestor
was already in the Americas, we obtain a coalescence
time of 18,000 +/- 6,800 YBP..."


"...X2 is spread widely
throughout West Eurasia. Second, it is apparent that the
Native American haplogroup X mtDNAs derive from
X2 by a unique combination of five mutations. Third,
the few Altaian (Derenko et al. 2001) and Siberian haplogroup
X lineages are not related to the Native American
cluster, and they are more likely explained by recent
gene flow from Europe or from West Asia..."


"...The phylogeographic patterns and the coalescence
times that we obtained here suggest that the
basic phylogenetic structures of the mtDNA haplogroups
in West Eurasia and North Africa are as ancient
as the beginning of the spread of anatomically modern
humans in this region. Finally, phylogeography of the
subclades of haplogroup X suggests that the Near East
is the likely geographical source for the spread of subhaplogroup
X2, and the associated population dispersal
occurred around, or after, the LGM when the climate
ameliorated. The presence of a daughter clade in northern
Native Americans testifies to the range of this population
expansion..."

Reidla et al. 2003

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180497/


"...Phylogenetic mitochondrial DNA haplogroups are highly
partitioned across global geographic regions. A unique
exception is the X haplogroup, which has a widespread global
distribution without major regions of distinct localization..."

"...We observed a striking overall pattern of heterogeneous parental
origins, consistent with Druze oral tradition, together with both
a high frequency and a high diversity of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) X
haplogroup within a confined regional subpopulation..."

"...Galilee Druze represent a population isolate, and that the combination
of a high frequency and diversity of the mtDNA X haplogroup signifies a
phylogenetic refugium, providing a sample snapshot of the genetic landscape
of the Near East prior to the modern age..."

"...Haplogroup X is one of the exceptions to this pattern of limited geographical
distribution, and is found at low frequencies among West Eurasians[2], northern
groups of Native Americans[3], as well as in northern Africa and the Near East[4].
A very high global genetic diversity has been reported for haplogroup X[4]..."


"...X2 is characterized by a much wider geographic range, but at the same time by very
low frequencies in the populations of the regions where it is found[4]. No population
or geographic region has been identified to date, in which haplogroup X and its major
subhaplogroups are found at both high frequency and high diversity, which could provide
a potential clue as to their geographic origin. Here we suggest that the Druze population
of northern Israel may represent just such a population..."

"...The Israeli Druze population is estimated at 150,000, and is distributed over three
geographical subregions: the Carmel, the Galilee, and the Golan Heights. It has been
postulated according to historical records that the origin of the Druze in each of
these regions is different. Although the Druze represent a small percentage of the
total population of the countries of the Near East in which they reside, their concentration
in mountainous districts has produced a compact social structure, resulting in a nearly exclusive
majority in some geographical regions, and therefore a low frequency of admixture with other
populations. Druze customs strongly favor marriage within the same village or the same geographical
area[5]. This social structure has turned the Druze into transnational isolates – a population
which remains genetically isolated largely through the social practice of endogamy and consanguinity,
despite being found in the midst of larger population majorities in multiple nationalities or
countries[6]. Furthermore, unlike other monotheistic religions, the Druze tenets strictly close
their religion to new adherents, thus forbidding admixture with other populations..."

"...we uncovered an unexpectedly high diversity of Druze X-haplogroup lineages, which together with
its high frequency suggest that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape
of the Near East, at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent..."


"...mtDNA X-haplogroup, in which we found both a high frequency (13.1%, 41/311 samples) together with a high diversity of haplotypes, as defined in Macaulay et al(7) on the basis of sequence variation at the HVS-I region (nucleotides 16090–16365) (Table 1). Macaulay et al[7] also found a high frequency of the X haplogroup (26%, 12/45 samples) in the Druze, but with a significantly lower diversity (p<0.00005) for both X1 and X2, (p value was calculated using t-test combined with bootstrap standard error analysis according to Nei16) , and proposed a bottleneck or founder effect. Given the different sampling strategies, we sought to determine the total number of different mtDNA X haplogroup lineages in our sample set. In order to determine the total number of distinct lineages, we followed the approach previously described for several other populations[13]–[15], of first sequencing the complete HVS-I and HVS-II D-loop sequences for all samples in the haplogroup, followed by complete sequencing of the entire mtDNA for each of the D-loop defined haplotypes. We found that the 41 Druze X-haplogroup sequences were comprised of 11 different D-loop defined haplotypes. Accordingly, we conducted full mtDNA sequencing for each of these 11 different D-loop defined haplotypes and found a total of 7 different coding region defined lineages, 2 of which belonged to major subhaplogroup X1 and 5 of which belonged to major subhaplogroup
X2..."


"...We found that 39 of 41 haplogroup X Druze individuals were from the Galilee heights (Table S2), corresponding to 21.4% (39/182) of the samples from that region. Enrichment analysis[22] revealed that both X1 and X2 were highly enriched in this region (P = 9.3*10^−5 and = 3*10^−4, respectively)..."


"...One particularly exceptional example of both high diversity and high frequency of haplogroup X was the Galilee heights village of Peq'in, where 6 of 17 households (35.3%) belonged to four distinct lineages of haplogroup X (X1a, X1b, X2e and X2*), yielding a calculated genetic diversity for both X1 and X2 of 0.667±0.02. This village, is believed to be one of the oldest Druze villages in Israel, and is mentioned in historical records dating from the 13th century..." 


"...Galilee Druze individuals represent the
refugium of an ancestral group with high diversity and high
frequency of haplogroup X, which was more prevalent in the
region in antiquity, and from which the global diversity of X
mtDNA haplogroup emerged..."


"...estimated coalescence times for the major mtDNA X subhaplogroups X1
and X2 are 42,900 +/- 18,100 and 17,900 +/- 2,900 respectively[4]..."


"...It should be kept in mind however, that the computational algorithms used for the
demographic modeling are designed for models involving an
ancestral population which split and maintained constant
migration rate among the two daughter populations. Such a
simplified model does not take into account the effect of shared
party migration, and therefore would tend to overestimate the
migration rate, and underestimate the divergence time[40]..."


"...this combination among the Druze, of a large number of lineages, together with a high
frequency of the haplogroup in which these lineages are found,
suggests descent from an ancestral population, in which the X
haplogroup was more abundant than it is in the contemporary
Near East, and which reflects the prevailing Near East genetic
landscape at that time, antedating the establishment of the Druze
religion in 1017 A.C.E. This supports the notion that the Druze
represent a refugium of the population genetic structure from the
time period prior to the ‘‘Dawa’’, and also confirms the hypothesis
of high endogamy among the Druze. The refugium hypothesis
based on mtDNA haplogroup X analysis was corroborated by the
finding of high diversity for the Druze mtDNA haplogroups H and
K, with the added finding of novel lineages not shared with nearby
populations..."

"...Taken together these findings support the hypothesis that the Galilee Druze are a
further more isolated subpopulation of the Druze, who in turn represents a refugium
of the population genetic architecture of the Near East in antiquity..."


"...It is thus likely that the global diversity of this haplogroup evolved in the Near East and
adjacent regions of western Eurasia, during a long incubation period coinciding with and
following the most recent out of Africa expansion as dated by mtDNA coalescence simulations[44]..."


Shlush LI, Behar DM, Yudkovsky G, Templeton A, Hadid Y, et al. (2008) The Druze: A Population
Genetic Refugium of the Near East. PLoS ONE 3(5):
e2105. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002105

http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0002105


Wouldn't this be a trip:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Haplogroup_X_%28mtDNA%29.PNG

"...The diagram below (on the left) is from the Chauvet Cave in France and is a historical
representation of the origin of these boat people, the Black Sea area. From Google Earth
the ancient shoreline of thousands of years ago can be seen by a lower smaller water shoreline..."

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boatsea.jpg

"...The view and homeland of this ancient sea was from the north shore so looking towards the
south was the sea. In the cave diagram this north view shows the sea upside down as the
bottom of the diagram would be closer to artist and the view in front of them. I added missing
dots that I was told extended to the left of the cave painting (this surface had fallen off
many years ago). The red dashed line shows the approximate ancient shore line and river that
was another obstacle to transverse..."

"...I was also told that these boat people of the Black Sea area left at the same time other families
of more land based hunter groups did (due to climate change). The sea water had lowered to a level
that the salt content was too high for any great amount of fish and other aquatic life. They settled
in a rich land south of France, that is now under water (shown in the map below)..."

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/france.jpg

"...I asked the question....Who were the "Boat People"..."?

"...Description: They called themselves the Kamrillacon - (pronounced,  Camil - a- con). - dark-skinned -
stout framed - thick wavy hair - wide faces - humours ones that smiled and laughed a lot. They
reminded me somewhat of the Ainu people of today..."

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/boats.htm


Charlie Hatchett

www.pre-clovis.com
www.forum.pre-clovis.com
www.blog.pre-clovis.com

Cactus Hill Notes

 http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushill2earlypointshand.jpg

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushillcompletepreclovisptlrg.jpg 

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushillbrokenpreclovisptlrg.jpg 

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushillcoresandbladessm.jpg

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushillbladelargetriple.jpg

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/cactushillsidescraperhndsm.jpg


"...but luminescence dates on the
aeolian sands correlate with the older 14C results
and indicate minimal mixing of the sediments(66)..."

Goebel et al. 2008

66. J. K. Feathers, E. J. Rhodes, S. Huot, J. M. McAvoy, Quat.
Geochronol. 1, 167 (2006).


Abstract

Cactus Hill is located in the Virginia Coastal Plain on a terrace above the Nottoway River. The site has a record of occupation that spans the Holocene and also offers evidence of humans late in the Pleistocene before Clovis time. Soil investigations identified several deposit types, and demonstrated that multisequal eolian sands forming the site's primary core are arrayed in spatially and temporally discrete horizons. Resting atop an ancient paleosol, the earliest sand stratum (19,540 ± 70 14C yr B.P.) is marked by a conspicuous
but culturally sterile buried surface horizon. Eolian sand above this surface supports another sequum in which Clovis and underlying “Blade” artifacts are associated with a fainter surface horizon and pronounced subsoil lamellae. Early Archaic and successively younger artifacts occur above the Clovis level in a more weakly developed uppermost sequum. This soil and cultural stratigraphy, together with considerations of regional
topography, demonstrate that the landscape has evolved incrementally since about the last glacial maximum.

Wagner, D. P. and McAvoy, J. M. (2004), Pedoarchaeology of Cactus Hill, a sandy Paleoindian site in southeastern Virginia, U.S.A.
Geoarchaeology, 19: 297–322. doi: 10.1002/gea.10120


Abstract

Twenty thin sections were studied from Cactus Hill, a ca. 20 ka stratified sand dune site in Virginia, USA, with a Clovis and hypothesized pre-Clovis component. The high-resolution soil micromorphology investigation focused on testing the integrity of Clovis and pre-Clovis stratigraphy from one location where there is a high density of artifacts. Site formation processes were dominated by eolian (dune) sand formation. There was also ephemeral topsoil development and associated occupation, along with their penecontemporaneous disturbance and dispersal by scavenging animals (assumed) and localized down-working by small invertebrate mesofauna (as evidenced by aggregates of fine phytolith-rich humic soil and fine soil-coated charcoal fragments). Partial erosion of these occupation soils (deflation?) was followed by successive sand burial. Post-depositional processes affecting these sand-buried occupations involved only small-scale bioturbation and overprinting of clay lamellae, suggesting site stratigraphy has been stable for a long time. Soil micromorphological analysis has defined a difference between occupational units (pre-Clovis and Clovis) and sterile units found between these units as well as above and below. In summary, according to this analysis, the site appears intact with only minor disturbances affecting the long-term
integrity of the stratigraphy.

Macphail1, R. I. and McAvoy, J. M. (2008), A micromorphological analysis of stratigraphic integrity and site formation at Cactus Hill, an Early Paleoindian and hypothesized pre-Clovis occupation in south-central Virginia, USA.
Geoarchaeology, 23: 675–694. doi: 10.1002/gea.20234


Charlie Hatchett

www.pre-clovis.com
www.forum.pre-clovis.com
www.blog.pre-clovis.com

The Topper Site: Notes

"...Currently, the oldest claim for occupation of

North America is at the Topper site, located on

a Pleistocene terrace overlooking the Savannah

River. Clovis artifacts at Topper are found at

the base of a colluvial deposit, and older artifacts

are reported in underlying sandy alluvial sediments

dated to about 15 ka (68). The proposed

early assemblage is a smashed core and microlithic

industry. Cores and their removals show

no negative bulbs, and flakes and spalls were

modified into small unifacial tools and “bendbreak

tools,” possibly used for working wood

or bone. In 2004, similar-looking material was

found in older alluvial deposits dating in excess

of 50 ka (69). Given that the assemblage was

not produced through conventional Paleolithic

technologies and that the putative artifacts

could have been produced through natural

processes (specifically thermal spalling), evaluation

of this site must await a complete lithic

analysis..."

Goebel, Waters, O’Rourke 2008

I think Goebel et al. need to define what they consider to be "conventional Paleolithic technologies". Here are examples of specimens recovered in secure geological contexts at Topper:

http://www.allendale-expedition.net/museum/topchop.jpg

http://allendale-expedition.net/museum/spurtoolbig.jpg

http://media.photobucket.com/image/topper%20site%20artifacts/LL3850/PICT0264.jpg

http://uscsalkehatchie.sc.edu/home/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/artifact2a.gif

http://uscsalkehatchie.sc.edu/home/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/artifact4a.jpg

http://academic.enmu.edu/kilbyd/images/images_students/Sain/Topper%20blade.jpg

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/topper-15.jpg

http://www.allendale-expedition.net/museum/microtools.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovis05tr.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovispaper27tr.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovispaper25tr.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovispaper17t.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovispaper24tr.jpg

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/topperpreclovispaper20t.jpg

These are without a doubt anthropogenic. I'm not sure why these non-"smashed core", microlithic, “bendbreak tools” weren't addressed?

Here are examples of "bendbreak", "smashed core" (I assume they mean bipolar reduction), microlithic specimens:

http://www.allendale-expedition.net/museum/bb1.jpg

http://www.allendale-expedition.net/museum/bb2.jpg

http://allendale-expedition.net/museum/SCinst1-R2-065-31.jpg

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/enlarge/topper-10.php

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/enlarge/topper-12.php

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/enlarge/topper-13.php

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/enlarge/topper-2.php

An overview of the stratigraphy:

http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter54/text-Topper/TopperStrata.gif

http://i5.photobucket.com/albums/y178/McConaughy/TopperSite/toppersite24trljpg.jpg

http://www.allendale-expedition.net/museum/stratprofilemed.jpg

http://www.centerfirstamericans.org/gallery/enlarge/topper-5.php

"...Hypothesized pre-Clovis artifacts derive from several stratigraphic units below the Clovis horizon at Topper..."

"...This is overlain by unit 3b (Figures 2, 4, 5, and 6) which is ubiquitous across the site. This unit consists primarily of silty sand with occasional angular gravels that become more abundant toward to the slope. In some places, the angular gravels close to the slope become 10 cm thick and grade downslope into a stone line (Figure 6). The upper 60 cm of unit 3b is pedogenically altered into a weak Bw horizon with a 15-20 cm thick A or AP horizon. Unit 3b immediately overlies units 3a and 2b. The contact between units 3b and 2b is sometimes difficult to clearly identify due to their similar textures. Clovis artifacts occur at the base of unit 3b. Above the Clovis horizon is a stratigraphically coherent cultural sequence that ranges from early, middle, and late Archaic to Woodland near the top (Goodyear 2001)..."

"...Sometime after this erosional period, colluvium (unit 2a) accumulated locally next to the channel edge and the alluvial sands were deposited (unit 2b) across most of the site. These sediments appear to have been deposited in arcuate channels, potentially part of a braided stream system. Swales at the top of this unit are

filled with fine-grained overbank deposits (unit 2c) and represent the last episode of fluvial deposition at the site. Luminescence dating suggests that fluvial deposition ceased around 15,000 yr B.P. At this point, the river downcut and abandoned the floodplain, creating Terrace 2…”

Waters et al. 2009

This indicates that the preClovis artifacts recovered from Unit 2a can be no younger than 15kya.

"...Pedogenic processes have altered the upper portion of unit 1 creating a weak Bt, which was later truncated by erosion. Goodyear (2005a, 2005b) has recovered chert pieces that he identifies as pre-Clovis artifacts and a charcoal concentration (feature 91) that had the appearance of a possible hearth in unit 1..."

"...This technique was used on a sample of organic matter from unit 1a. The “humic acids” isolated from the first extraction from this sample yielded dates of 44,300 + 1700 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-77496) and 45,800 + 1000 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-78601). The second humic acid extraction was discarded and not dated. Humates from the third extraction yielded dates of 48,700 + 1500 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-78602) and 49,900 ± 1300 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-80534). These dates are evidence that negligible younger humate contamination existed in the samples. However, the dates from the third extractions yield more reliable ages. Regardless, these dates are all minimum ages because the dates are at the maximum limits of the radiocarbon method..."

"...Six samples of wood, nutshell, and humic acids were dated from unit 1a (Figures 4 and 5). These dates represent minimum ages for unit 1a and indicate that this unit dates in excess of 50,000 14C yr B.P. A date of >54,700 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-79022) was obtained on a Hickory (Carya) nutshell and a date of >55,500 B.P. 14C yr B.P. (CAMS-19023) on a pied of fir wood (Abies) from an organic horizon within unit 1a underlying the reported oldest cultural horizon at the Topper site. The lens containing the Carya, Abies, and other plant species is interpreted to be woody plant material that accumulated naturally in a shallow swale in the stream bed. Two dates, >50,300 14C yr B.P. (UCIAMS-11682) and >51,700 14C yr B.P. (UCIAMS-11683) were obtained on reduced woody plant remains from a low-relief, thin, lenticular accumulation of physically well preserved plant material within the fluvial sands of unit 1. Goodyear defined this as feature 91 and *SUGGESTED* that this *MAY* represent a hearth-like feature (Goodyear, 2005b). Although the plant remains were black, there is no evidence the plant material had been combusted or that the plant fossils had been emplaced secondarily into the fluvial sands. The organic-carbon rich lens was lithologically conformable vertically and horizontally with enclosing stream channel sands, there was no evidence of heat-caused oxidation (hematite development) in sand immediately below the organic matter, and the plant remains were soft, retained excellent cellular structure, and reacted immediately and strongly with weak KOH used during the radiocarbon pretreatment process..."

* Emphasis added

Waters et al. 2009

"...Evidence is emerging for an even earlier human entry into the Americas, prior to 15,500 CALYBP. Presentations and discussions concerning Miles Point and similar localities on the Delmarva Peninsula, Cactus Hill, La Sena, Lovewell, Burnham, Topper, Monte Verde I, and others suggesting the possibility of a human presence in the Americas before the Last Glacial Maximum is increasingly intriguing and may develop rapidly in the near future..."

Collins and Waters et al. 2008

Current Research in the Pleistocene 25:195-197

"...Excavations here consisted of one-meter squares dug to the depth of the 50,000-year radiocarbon dates, or about 95.40 meters. The goal is to recover chert artifacts from the top of the terrace at approximately 97.30 meters, downward two meters to the level of the dates (Fig. 2). Numerous examples of the distinctive bend break tools have been found through out the terrace including one with an obvious graver spur (Fig. 3). This artifact is considered of unquestionable human manufacture and was found in the upper portion of the terrace (Fig. 2). Another exciting find was a reddish core of unweathered chert with four areas of battering and several flake detachments (Fig. 4). This artifact was recovered in situ at a depth of 96.05 meters, some 60 centimeters above the 50,000-year dates (Fig. 2). Like the spurred piece, it is considered a definitive artifact.

Figure 3

http://allendale-expedition.net/museum/spurtoolbig.jpg

Figure 4

http://allendale-expedition.net/museum/SCinst1-R2-065-31.jpg

..."

Charlie Hatchett
[preclovis.blogspot.com]

Across Atlantic Ice- Stanford and Bradley 2012

Across Atlantic Ice- Stanford and Bradley 2012

-------------------------------------------------------

> Roxana Wrote:
> --------------------------------------------------
> -----
> > Explain to me in words of one syllable why the
> > maker of this scraper had to be Solutrean? It sure
> > does indicate that somebody was hunting mastodon
> > c. 23,000 BP but why a European Solutrean? I mean
> > I got no problem with it being so but why?


It's long, thin and bipointed (sorry, 2 syllables).


It's 188mm (7.4") long, 55mm (2.16") wide and 6mm
(.24") thick. That's a width/thickness ratio of 9.2.


That's comparable to these:

http://media.kunst-fuer-alle.de/img/36/m/36_161007~solutrean-%27laurel-leaf%27-blade,-found-at-volgu,-20000-15000-bc.jpg

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/solutreanlaurelwhitetriplelarge.htm

http://s3.amazonaws.com/readers/2010/06/20/bifacefeuilledelaurier_1.jpg

And the Cinmar bipointed biface we're discussing
was made out of relatively inferior material
compared to the Solutrean examples.

"...These measurements yield a width-to-thickness
ratio of 7.0. This is extremely thin, but not
without precedence in the archaeological record.
Some of the thinner Solutrean laurel leafs have
width-to-thickness ratios even higher than
7.0..."

http://www.ele.net/algor/flake_creation/SD_figures.htm

Theres nothing like the Cinmar bipointed biface in
northern Asia/ Siberia/ Beringia. There are bipointed
bifaces in Asia, much later than 23kya, but they're much
thicker.

None of this means it HAD to be Solutrean, it's
just that Solutrean technology is a close match
for the timeframe. Hell, maybe the LGM Native
Americans crossed over to France and Spain.

Images of the Cinmar bipointed biface (click to enlarge):

[gwynnsislandmuseum.org]

The biface is weakly weathered on one face and
unweathered on the other. As thin as it is, it's hard
to believe it's intact...excellent preservation.Historic
ship ballast? I don't think so.

And we do have the biface from the test excavation
on a 17th century site on Eppes Island, VA performed
by the Archeological Society of VA. The point biface
was identified as Solutrean and French in appearance.
It was excavated in 2 halves with two small wedge
shaped pieces missing. Jeff Speakman of the Smithsonian's
analytical lab conducted X-ray fluorescence probe of the
biface. The results indicated the flint was of French origin.
The biface and other prehistoric artifacts were found below
a clay chimney base.

Stanford et al. 2012

Quarterly Bulletin of the Archeological Society of VA 35/3, pp 139-158, March 1981

I'd like to get my hands on this report.

Charlie Hatchett
[preclovis.blogspot.com]



-------------------------------------------------------
> Charlie Hatchett Wrote:
> --------------------------------------------------
> -----
> > Turn these Solutrean paintings sideways and what
> > do you get?

> > Boats? Sails? 

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat2a.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat2.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat3.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat1.jpg
> >

> > "...El Castillo Cave, Spain (of Solutrean
> > origin)..."
> >
  http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/boats.htm
> >
> >
> > Charlie Hatchett

> Rick Wrote:
> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> Charlie-I think the same thing that is going on
> here is the same thing that happens with a lot of
> egyptian art; Perspective. I don't think we're
> looking at them sideways, I think this is a top
> view of the boats, rafts, floatation devices and
> the dots surrounding them represent the currents
> that are carrying them.


Perhaps. But the "bottoms" (the sides touching the "water") appear bowed:

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat2a.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat2.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat3.jpg

http://thelamplight.ca/schematicoftime/images/boat1.jpg

Charlie Hatchett
[preclovis.blogspot.com]


> Rick Wrote:
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> Good point! I didn't notice that. That definitely moves it into the 'side-view' column. But I definitely think  > the dots represent 'water' or 'currents'.

 > > I agree.

> > Charlie Hatchett
> > [preclovis.blogspot.com]


> Rick Wrote:
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> Also look at this late-pleistocene solutrean boat here:







> http://img.adpost.com/classifieds/uploadt/us/boats/us_boats.3746.1.jpg

> Notice how it comes to a point in the front and has a square back which is similar to the cave painting?

> Rick Baudé Wrote:
-------------------------------------------------------
> Also look at this late-pleistocene solutrean boat
> here:



>
> Notice how it comes to a point in the front and
> has a square back which is similar to the cave
> painting?

Yup. The ice age water was probably a bit chilly.


Charlie Hatchett
[preclovis.blogspot.com]